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<title>John Robison (physicist)</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">John Robison (physicist)</span></span>

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</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">John Robison</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"></span><div class="infobox-caption">Robison in 1798</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1739-02-04</span>)</span>4 February 1739<br><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace">Boghall, <a href="Baldernock" title="Baldernock">Baldernock</a>, <a href="Stirlingshire" title="Stirlingshire">Stirlingshire</a>, Scotland</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">30 January 1805<span style="display:none">(1805-01-30)</span> (aged 65)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Glasgow_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Glasgow University">Glasgow University</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a>, <a href="Mathematics" title="Mathematics">Mathematics</a>, <a href="Chemistry" title="Chemistry">Chemistry</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Glasgow_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Glasgow University">Glasgow University</a>, <a href="Edinburgh_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Edinburgh University">Edinburgh University</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2">

</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Notes</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div style="text-align: left;">Residential Member of the Edinburgh Philosophical Society<br>Fellow of the <a href="Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh" title="Royal Society of Edinburgh">Royal Society of Edinburgh</a> (1783)<br>Member of the <a href="Glasgow_Literary_Society" title="Glasgow Literary Society">Glasgow Literary Society</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table>

<p><b>John Robison</b> <a href="FRSE" class="mw-redirect" title="FRSE">FRSE</a> (4 February 1739 – 30 January 1805) was a Scottish physicist and mathematician. He was a <a href="Professor" title="Professor">professor</a> of <a href="Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a> (the precursor of natural science) at the <a href="University_of_Edinburgh" title="University of Edinburgh">University of Edinburgh</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>A member of the Edinburgh Philosophical Society when it received its royal warrant, he was appointed as the first general secretary to the <a href="Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh" title="Royal Society of Edinburgh">Royal Society of Edinburgh</a> (1783–98). Robison invented the <a href="Siren_(noisemaker)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siren (noisemaker)">siren</a> and also worked with <a href="James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</a> on an early <a href="Steam_car" title="Steam car">steam car</a>. Following the <a href="French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, Robison became disenchanted with elements of the <a href="Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>. He authored <i>Proofs of a Conspiracy</i> in 1797—a polemic accusing Freemasonry of being infiltrated by <a href="Adam_Weishaupt" title="Adam Weishaupt">Weishaupt</a>'s Order of the <a href="Illuminati" title="Illuminati">Illuminati</a>. His son was the inventor <a href="Sir_John_Robison" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir John Robison">Sir John Robison</a> (1778–1843).

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2></div>

<p>The son of John Robison, a Glasgow merchant, he was born in Boghall, <a href="Baldernock" title="Baldernock">Baldernock</a>, <a href="Stirlingshire" title="Stirlingshire">Stirlingshire</a> (now East Dunbartonshire) and attended <a href="Glasgow_Grammar_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Glasgow Grammar School">Glasgow Grammar School</a> and the <a href="University_of_Glasgow" title="University of Glasgow">University of Glasgow</a> (MA 1756).<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After a brief stay in London in 1758 Robison became the tutor to the <a href="Midshipman" title="Midshipman">midshipman</a> son of <a href="Sir_Charles_Knowles%2C_1st_Baronet" title="Sir Charles Knowles, 1st Baronet">Admiral Knowles</a>, sailing with the <a href="Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> on <a href="General_Wolfe" class="mw-redirect" title="General Wolfe">General Wolfe</a>'s expedition to Quebec and Portugal (1756–62). His <a href="Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematical</a> skills were employed in <a href="Navigation" title="Navigation">navigation</a> and <a href="Surveying" title="Surveying">surveying</a>. Returning to Britain in 1762, he joined the <a href="Board_of_Longitude" title="Board of Longitude">Board of Longitude</a> — a team of scientists who tested <a href="John_Harrison" title="John Harrison">John Harrison</a>'s <a href="Marine_chronometer" title="Marine chronometer">marine chronometer</a> on a voyage to <a href="Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a>.

</p><p>Subsequently, he settled in Glasgow engaging in the <a href="Practical_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Practical science">practical science</a> of <a href="James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</a> and <a href="Joseph_Black" title="Joseph Black">Joseph Black</a> in opposition to the systematic continental European chemistry of <a href="Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Antoine Lavoisier</a> and its adherents such as <a href="Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Joseph Priestley</a>. In 1766 he succeeded Black as Professor of Chemistry at the University of Glasgow. He in turn was succeeded in 1770 by Black's assistant, <a href="William_Irvine_(chemist)" title="William Irvine (chemist)">William Irvine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In 1769, he announced that balls with like electrical charges repel each other with a force that varies as the inverse-square of the distance between them, anticipating <a href="Coulomb's_law" title="Coulomb's law">Coulomb's law</a> of 1785.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In 1770 he travelled to <a href="Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a> as the secretary of Admiral <a href="Sir_Charles_Knowles%2C_1st_Baronet" title="Sir Charles Knowles, 1st Baronet">Charles Knowles</a>, where he taught <a href="Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a> to the cadets at the <a href="Russian_Naval_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Naval Academy">Naval Academy</a> at <a href="Kronstadt" title="Kronstadt">Kronstadt</a>, obtaining a double salary and the rank of lieutenant colonel. Robison moved to Scotland in 1773 and took up the post of Professor of <a href="Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a> at the <a href="University_of_Edinburgh" title="University of Edinburgh">University of Edinburgh</a>. He lectured on <a href="Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a>, <a href="Hydrostatics" title="Hydrostatics">hydrostatics</a>, <a href="Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="Optics" title="Optics">optics</a>, <a href="Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a> and <a href="Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetism</a>. His conception of <a href="Mechanical_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical philosophy">mechanical philosophy</a>' became influential in nineteenth-century British physics. His name appears in the 1776 "Minute Book of <a href="The_Poker_Club" title="The Poker Club">The Poker Club</a>", a crucible of the <a href="Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Scottish Enlightenment</a>. In 1783 he became General Secretary of the <a href="Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh" title="Royal Society of Edinburgh">Royal Society of Edinburgh</a> and in 1797 his articles for the <i><a href="Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Third_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Third Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> gave a good account of the scientific, mathematical and technological knowledge of the day. He also prepared for publication, in 1799, the chemical lectures of his friend and mentor, <a href="Joseph_Black" title="Joseph Black">Joseph Black</a>.

</p><p>Robison worked with <a href="James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</a> on an early <a href="Steam_car" title="Steam car">steam car</a>. This project came to nothing and has no direct connection to Watt's later improvement of the <a href="Newcomen_steam_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Newcomen steam engine">Newcomen steam engine</a>. He along with Joseph Black and others gave evidence about Watt's originality and their own lack of connection to his key idea of the Separate Condenser.

</p><p>Robison did however invent the <a href="Siren_(noisemaker)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siren (noisemaker)">siren</a>, though it was <a href="Charles_Cagniard_de_la_Tour" title="Charles Cagniard de la Tour">Charles Cagniard de la Tour</a> who named it after producing an improved model.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Proofs_of_a_Conspiracy">Proofs of a Conspiracy</h2></div>

<p>Towards the end of his life he published <i>Proofs of a Conspiracy</i> in 1797, alleging clandestine intrigue by the <i><a href="Illuminati" title="Illuminati">Illuminati</a></i> and <a href="Freemasonry" title="Freemasonry">Freemasons</a> (the work's full title was <i>Proofs of a Conspiracy against all the Religions and Governments of Europe, carried on in the secret meetings of Freemasons, Illuminati and Reading Societies</i>). The <a href="Secret_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Secret agent">secret agent</a> monk, <a href="Alexander_Horn" title="Alexander Horn">Alexander Horn</a> provided much of the material for Robison's allegations.<sup id="cite_ref-ODNB1_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODNB1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> French priest <a href="Augustin_Barruel" title="Augustin Barruel">Abbé Barruel</a> independently developed similar views that the <i>Illuminati</i> had infiltrated <a href="Grand_Orient_de_France" title="Grand Orient de France">Continental Freemasonry</a>, leading to the excesses of the <a href="French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1798, the Reverend G. W. Snyder sent Robison's book to <a href="George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> for his thoughts on the subject in which he replied to him in a letter:

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It was not my intention to doubt that, the Doctrines of the Illuminati, and principles of Jacobinism had not spread in the United States. On the contrary, no one is more truly satisfied of this fact than I am. The idea that I meant to convey, was, that I did not believe that the <i>Lodges</i> of Free Masons in <i>this</i> Country had, as <i>Societies,</i> endeavoured to propagate the diabolical tenets of the first, or pernicious principles of the latter (if they are susceptible of separation). That Individuals of them may have done it, or that the <i>founder,</i> or <i>instrument</i> employed to found, the Democratic Societies in the United States, may have had these objects; and actually had a separation of the <i>People</i> from their <i>Government</i> in view, is too evident to be questioned.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works">Works</h2></div>

<ul><li><i>Outlines of Mechanical philosophy: Containing the Heads of a Course of Lectures,</i> Edinburgh, William Creech, 1781.</li>

<li><i>Outlines of a Course of Experimental Philosophy,</i> Edinburgh, William Creech, 1784.</li>

<li><i>Outlines of a Course of Lectures on Mechanical Philosophy</i>, Edinburgh, J. Brown, 1803.</li>

<li><i>Elements of Mechanical Philosophy: Being the Substance of a Course of Lectures on that Science</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Edinburgh, Archibald Constable, 1804.</li>

<li>Robison contributed well over forty articles to the third edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1797) and its supplement, including: <i>Resistance of Fluids,</i> <i>Roof,</i> <i>Running of Rivers,</i> <i>Seamanship,</i> <i>Telescope</i> and <i>Water-works.</i><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><i>A System of Mechanical Philosophy</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proofs_of_a_Conspiracy,_reprints_and_related_documents"><i>Proofs of a Conspiracy</i>, reprints and related documents</h3></div>

<ul><li><i>Proofs of a Conspiracy against all the Religions and Governments of Europe, carried on in the Secret Meetings of Free-Masons, Illuminati and Reading Societies, etc., collected from good authorities</i>, Edinburgh, 1797; 2nd ed. London, T. Cadell & W. Davies, 1797 with a Postscript; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/proofsofconspira00r#page/n5/mode/2up">3rd ed.</a> with Postscript, Philadelphia, T. Dobson & W. Cobbet, 1798; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/proofsofconspira02r#page/n5/mode/2up">4th ed.</a>, G. Forman, New York, 1798; Dublin 1798; <i>Proofs of a Conspiracy</i>, Western Islands, 1900; <i>The Illuminati</i>, taken from "Proofs of a world conspiracy", Elizabeth Knauss [1930]; <i>Proof's [sic!] of a Conspiracy</i>, Ram Reprints, 1964; <i>Proofs of a conspiracy</i>, Boston, Western Islands, "The Americanist Classics", [1967]; <i>Proofs of a Conspiracy,</i> Islands Press, 1978; C P a Book Pub, 2002 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">

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</style><a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-944379-69-9</bdi> ; Kessinger Publishing, 2003 <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-7661-8124-3</bdi>; annotated 5th ed. with foreword by <a href="Alex_Kurtagic" class="mw-redirect" title="Alex Kurtagic">Alex Kurtagic</a>, <i>Proofs of a Conspiracy,</i> The Palingenesis Project (Wermod and Wermod Publishing Group), 2014 <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-909606-03-6</bdi>; annotated 6th ed., "Proofs of a Conspiracy," Spradabach Publishing, 2022 <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1999357-35-1</bdi>.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_vedAAAAAcAAJ_2"><i>Ueber geheime Gesellschaften und deren Gefährlichkeit für Staat und Religion...</i></a> translated in German, Königslutter, 1800.

<ul><li>[Anti-Jacobin], <i>New Lights on Jacobinism</i>, abstracted from Professor Robison's History of Free Masonry, with an appendix containing an account of Voltaire's behaviour on his death-bed, and a letter from J. H. Stone to Dr. Priestley, disclosing the principles of Jacobinism. By the author of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/jacobinismdispla00antiuoft#page/n3/mode/2up"><i>Jacobinism Displayed</i></a>, Birmingham, E. Piercy, Birmingham, 1798.</li>

<li>William Bentley & John Bacon, <i>Extracts from Professor Robison's "Proofs of a Conspiracy" & c., with Brief Reflections on the Charges he has Exhibited, the Evidence he has Produced and the Merit of his Performance,</i> Boston, Manning & Loring, Boston, 1799.</li>

<li>Abraham Bishop, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/2027/loc.ark:/13960/t2h70tf3m"><i>Proofs of a Conspiracy, Against Christianity, and the Government of the United States,</i></a> J. Babcock, 1802.</li>

<li>Seth Payson, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/2027/hvd.32044023307614"><i>Proofs of the Real Existence, and Dangerous Tendency, of Illuminism, Containing an Abstract of what Dr. Robinson and the Abbé Barruel have Published on this Subject; with Collateral Proofs and General Observations,</i></a> Charlestown, 1802 [reprinted by Invisible College Press, LLC, 2003]. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1-931468-14-1</bdi></li>

<li>Henry Dana Ward, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/2027/hvd.32044038505228"><i>Free Masonry. Its Pretensions Exposed in Faithful Extracts of its Standard Authors; with a Review of Town's Speculative Masonry; its Liability to Pervert the Doctrines of Revealed Religion, Discovered in the Spirit of its Doctrines, and in the Application of its Emblems: its Dangerous Tendency Exhibited in Extracts from the Abbé Barruel and Professor Robison, and Further Illustrated in its Base Service to the Illuminati,</i></a> New York, 1828.</li></ul></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Augustin_Barruel" title="Augustin Barruel">Augustin Barruel</a>, author of <i>"<a href="Memoirs_Illustrating_the_History_of_Jacobinism" title="Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism">Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism</a>"</i> (1797)</li>

<li><a href="Lorenzo_Herv%C3%A1s" title="Lorenzo Hervás">Lorenzo Hervás</a>, author of <i>"Causes of the French Revolution"</i> (1807)</li>

<li><a href="Nicholas_Bonneville" title="Nicholas Bonneville">Nicholas Bonneville</a></li>

<li><a href="Honor%C3%A9_Gabriel_Riqueti%2C_comte_de_Mirabeau" title="Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau">Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.masonicinfo.com/robison.htm">Past anti-Masons : John Robison, on masonicinfo.com</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070701033532/http://www.nahste.ac.uk/cgi-bin/view_isad.pl?id=GB-0237-John-Robison&view=basic">Biography, Papers of John Robison, Edinburgh University Library</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://freemasonry.bcy.ca/texts/robison-barruel.html">"The French Revolution and the Bavarian Illuminati", on Robison and Barruel, Freemasonry BC-Y</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/philosophicalmag10lond#page/348/mode/2up">"Memoirs of the Life of Dr. Robison,"</a> <i>Philosophical Magazine,</i> Vol. X, 1801.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/philosophicalmag13lond#page/386/mode/2up">"Biographical Memoirs of Dr. Robinson, of Edinburgh,"</a> <i>Philosophical Magazine,</i> Vol. XIII, 1802.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPlayfair,_John1815" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="John_Playfair" title="John Playfair">Playfair, John</a> (1815). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=njp.32101074834159;view=1up;seq=553">"Biographical Account of the late John Robison, LL.D."</a></span>. <i>Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh</i>. <b>7</b>: <span class="nowrap">495–</span>539. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0080456800027927">10.1017/S0080456800027927</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163782119">163782119</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110517014610/http://www.royalsoced.org.uk/fellowship/fells_indexp2.pdf">"Former RSE Fellows 1783–2002"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh" title="Royal Society of Edinburgh">Royal Society of Edinburgh</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.royalsoced.org.uk/fellowship/fells_indexp2.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 17 May 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 September</span> 2010</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFClerke" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="Agnes_Mary_Clerke" title="Agnes Mary Clerke">Clerke, Agnes Mary</a>. <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Irvine, William (1743-1787)"><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Irvine,_William_(1743-1787)">"Irvine, William (1743-1787)" </a></span>. <i><a href="Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Dictionary of National Biography</a></i>. Vol. 20. p. 50.</cite> </span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Robison, <i>A System of Mechanical Philosophy</i> (London, England: John Murray, 1822), vol. 4. On page 68, the author states that in 1769 he announced his findings regarding the force between spheres of like charge. On <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8pRDAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA73">page 73</a>, the author states the force between spheres of like charge varies as x<sup>−2.06</sup>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-ODNB1-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ODNB1_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dilworth, Mark. <i>"Horn, Alexander (1762–1820),"</i> <a href="Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a>, Oxford University Press, 2004</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Firminger, W. K. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/arsquatuorcorona50free#page/30/mode/2up"><i>"The Romances of Robison and Barruel,"</i></a> Ars Quatuor Coronatorum, Vol. I. W. J. Parrett, Ltd. Margate, 1940.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thebaud, A. J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015074635411;seq=595;view=1up;num=577"><i>"Freemasonry,"</i></a> The American Catholic Quarterly Review, Vol. VI, 1881.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etext.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new2?id=WasFi36.xml&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=388&division=div1"><i>"To Reverend G. W. Snyder,"</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140119092612/http://etext.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new2?id=WasFi36.xml&images=images%2Fmodeng&data=%2Ftexts%2Fenglish%2Fmodeng%2Fparsed&tag=public&part=388&division=div1">Archived</a> 19 January 2014 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 24 October 1798.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/elementsofmechan00robirich#page/n5/mode/2up">"Elements of mechanical philosophy: being the substance of a course of lectures on that science"</a>. <i>archive.org</i>. 1804.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nahste.ac.uk/cgi-bin/view_isad.pl?id=GB-0237-John-Robison&view=basic"><i>Papers of John Robison,</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070701033532/http://www.nahste.ac.uk/cgi-bin/view_isad.pl?id=GB-0237-John-Robison&view=basic">Archived</a> 1 July 2007 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Edinburgh University Library Department of Special Collections.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRobison,_John1822" class="citation book cs1">Robison, John (1822). <i>A system of mechanical philosophy</i>. Edinburgh: John Murray. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fhvd.32044080805112">2027/hvd.32044080805112</a></span> – via HathiTrust.</cite> <span class=""><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.b24748">Vol. 2</a> <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="Open_access#Free_access" title="Free to read"></a></span></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.b24749">Vol. 3</a> <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="Open_access#Free_access" title="Free to read"></a></span></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.b24750">Vol. 4</a> <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="Open_access#Free_access" title="Free to read"></a></span></span></span></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2010" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Peter R. (2010). <i>Conspiracy in the French Revolution</i>. Manchester University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7190-7402-8</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDavis1971" class="citation book cs1">Davis, David Brian, ed. (1971). <i>The Fear of Conspiracy</i>. Cornell University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-8014-0598-X</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSlosson1917" class="citation journal cs1">Slosson, F. W. (1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/unpopularreview07newy#page/394/mode/2up">"The 'Conspiracy' Superstition"</a>. <i>The Unpopular Review</i>. <b>VII</b> (14).</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:John_Robison" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:John Robison">John Robison</a></span>.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/sro/pc/index.htm">Complete text of "Proofs of a Conspiracy ..." at sacred-texts.com</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.electricscotland.com/history/other/robison_john.htm">Biography at <i>Significant Scots</i></a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bilderberg.org/lucis.htm">Introduction and first two chapters of Robison's book: "Proofs of a Conspiracy ..."</a></li>

<li>Gruber, Hermann (1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07661b.htm"><i>"Illuminati,"</i></a> The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. VII. NY: Robert Appleton Company. pp. 661–663.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://publicdomainreview.org/2014/04/02/darkness-over-all-john-robison-and-the-birth-of-the-illuminati-conspiracy/">Darkness Over All: John Robison and the Birth of the Illuminati Conspiracy</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Order_of_the_Illuminati332" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Illuminati" title="Illuminati">Order of the Illuminati</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a> (<a href="Liberalism_in_Germany" title="Liberalism in Germany">Liberalism in Germany</a>)</span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Freemasonry" title="Freemasonry">Freemasonry</a> (<a href="Freemasonry_in_Germany" title="Freemasonry in Germany">Freemasonry in Germany</a>)</span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Anti-clericalism" title="Anti-clericalism">Anti-clericalism</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> (<a href="Jacobinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacobinism">Jacobinism</a>)</span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whilhelmsbad" class="extiw external" title="fr:Whilhelmsbad">Congress of Wilhelmsbad</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Charles_Theodore%2C_Elector_of_Bavaria" title="Charles Theodore, Elector of Bavaria">Charles Theodore, Elector of Bavaria</a></span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:;width:1%">Members</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="List_of_Illuminati_members" title="List of Illuminati members">Full list of members</a></span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">A–F</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Jacob_Friedrich_von_Abel" title="Jacob Friedrich von Abel">Jacob Friedrich von Abel</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Franz_von_Albini" title="Franz von Albini">Franz von Albini</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Prince_August_of_Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg" title="Prince August of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg">August von Sachsen-Gotha-Altenburg</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Jens_Baggesen" title="Jens Baggesen">Jens Baggesen</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Karl_Friedrich_Bahrdt" title="Karl Friedrich Bahrdt">Karl Friedrich Bahrdt</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Aloys_Basselet_von_La_Ros%C3%A9e" title="Aloys Basselet von La Rosée">Aloys Basselet von La Rosée</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="August_Batsch" title="August Batsch">August Batsch</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Rudolph_Zacharias_Becker" title="Rudolph Zacharias Becker">Rudolph Zacharias Becker</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Johann_Joachim_Bellermann" title="Johann Joachim Bellermann">Johann Joachim Bellermann</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Johann_Erich_Biester" title="Johann Erich Biester">Johann Erich Biester</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Aloys_Blumauer" title="Aloys Blumauer">Aloys Blumauer</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Johann_von_B%C3%B6ber" title="Johann von Böber">Johann von Böber</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Johann_Joachim_Christoph_Bode" title="Johann Joachim Christoph Bode">Johann Joachim Christoph Bode</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Johann_Michael_B%C3%B6ck" title="Johann Michael Böck">Johann Michael Böck</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Ignaz_von_Born" title="Ignaz von Born">Ignaz von Born</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Karl_B%C3%B6ttiger" title="Karl Böttiger">Karl Böttiger</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Joachim_Heinrich_Campe" title="Joachim Heinrich Campe">Joachim Heinrich Campe</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Christian_Cannabich" title="Christian Cannabich">Christian Cannabich</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Karl_August%2C_Grand_Duke_of_Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach" title="Karl August, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach">Karl August, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Philipp_von_Cobenzl" title="Philipp von Cobenzl">Philipp von Cobenzl</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Hieronymus_von_Colloredo" title="Hieronymus von Colloredo">Hieronymus von Colloredo</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Ignaz_Cornova" title="Ignaz Cornova">Ignaz Cornova</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Karl_Theodor_Anton_Maria_von_Dalberg" title="Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg">Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Anton_Dereser" title="Anton Dereser">Anton Dereser</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Johann_Georg_von_Dillis" title="Johann Georg von Dillis">Johann Georg von Dillis</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Christian_Wilhelm_von_Dohm" title="Christian Wilhelm von Dohm">Christian Wilhelm von Dohm</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Karl_von_Eckartshausen" title="Karl von Eckartshausen">Karl von Eckartshausen</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Rudolf_Eickemeyer" title="Rudolf Eickemeyer">Rudolf Eickemeyer</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Ernest_II%2C_Duke_of_Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg" title="Ernest II, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg">Ernest II, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Johann_Georg_Heinrich_Feder" title="Johann Georg Heinrich Feder">Johann Georg Heinrich Feder</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Duke_Ferdinand_of_Brunswick-Wolfenb%C3%BCttel" title="Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel">Ferdinand, Prince of Brunswick-Lüneburg </a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Moses_Dobru%C5%A1ka" title="Moses Dobruška">Junius Frey</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Frederick_Christian_II%2C_Duke_of_Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg" title="Frederick Christian II, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg">Frederick Christian II, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Frederick_V%2C_Landgrave_of_Hesse-Homburg" title="Frederick V, Landgrave of Hesse-Homburg">Frederick V, Landgrave of Hesse-Homburg</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Prince_Frederick_Ferdinand_Constantin_of_Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach" title="Prince Frederick Ferdinand Constantin of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach">Friedrich Ferdinand Constantin von Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach</a></span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">G–M</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Christian_Garve" title="Christian Garve">Christian Garve</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Friedrich_Gedike" title="Friedrich Gedike">Friedrich Gedike</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Otto_Heinrich_von_Gemmingen-Hornberg" title="Otto Heinrich von Gemmingen-Hornberg">Otto Heinrich von Gemmingen-Hornberg</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Johann Wolfgang von Goethe</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Leopold_Friedrich_G%C3%BCnther_von_Goeckingk" title="Leopold Friedrich Günther von Goeckingk">Leopold Friedrich Günther von Goeckingk</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Johann_Casimir_H%C3%A4ffelin" title="Johann Casimir Häffelin">Johann Casimir Häffelin</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Karl_August_von_Hardenberg" title="Karl August von Hardenberg">Karl August von Hardenberg</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Lorenz_Leopold_Haschka" title="Lorenz Leopold Haschka">Lorenz Leopold Haschka</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="August_Adolph_von_Hennings" title="August Adolph von Hennings">August Adolph von Hennings</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann Gottfried Herder</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Andreas_Joseph_Hofmann" title="Andreas Joseph Hofmann">Andreas Joseph Hofmann</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Christoph_Wilhelm_Hufeland" title="Christoph Wilhelm Hufeland">Christoph Wilhelm Hufeland</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Gottlieb_Hufeland" title="Gottlieb Hufeland">Gottlieb Hufeland</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Isaak_Iselin" title="Isaak Iselin">Isaak Iselin</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Friedrich_Heinrich_Jacobi" title="Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi">Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Prince_Charles_of_Hesse-Kassel" title="Prince Charles of Hesse-Kassel">Karl von Hesse-Kassel</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Wenzel_Anton%2C_Prince_of_Kaunitz-Rietberg" title="Wenzel Anton, Prince of Kaunitz-Rietberg">Wenzel Anton, Prince of Kaunitz-Rietberg</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Martin_Gottlieb_Klauer" title="Martin Gottlieb Klauer">Martin Gottlieb Klauer</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Johann_Friedrich_Kleuker" title="Johann Friedrich Kleuker">Johann Friedrich Kleuker</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Adolph_Freiherr_Knigge" title="Adolph Freiherr Knigge">Adolph Knigge</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Christian_Gottfried_K%C3%B6rner" title="Christian Gottfried Körner">Christian Gottfried Körner</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Karl_Heinrich_Lang" title="Karl Heinrich Lang">Karl Heinrich Lang</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Franz_Michael_Leuchsenring" title="Franz Michael Leuchsenring">Franz Michael Leuchsenring</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Justus_Christian_Loder" title="Justus Christian Loder">Justus Christian Loder</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Louis_I%2C_Grand_Duke_of_Hesse" title="Louis I, Grand Duke of Hesse">Ludwig I, Grand Duke of Hesse</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Jakob_Mauvillon" title="Jakob Mauvillon">Jakob Mauvillon</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Christoph_Meiners" title="Christoph Meiners">Christoph Meiners</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="August_Gottlieb_Mei%C3%9Fner" title="August Gottlieb Meißner">August Gottlieb Meißner</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Ludwig_August_Mellin" title="Ludwig August Mellin">Ludwig August Mellin</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Honor%C3%A9_Gabriel_Riqueti%2C_comte_de_Mirabeau" title="Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau">Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Daniel_Gotthilf_Moldenhawer" title="Daniel Gotthilf Moldenhawer">Daniel Gotthilf Moldenhawer</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Maximilian_von_Montgelas" title="Maximilian von Montgelas">Maximilian von Montgelas</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Johannes_von_M%C3%BCller" title="Johannes von Müller">Johannes von Müller</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Friedrich_M%C3%BCnter" title="Friedrich Münter">Friedrich Münter</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Johann_Karl_August_Mus%C3%A4us" title="Johann Karl August Musäus">Johann Karl August Musäus</a></span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">N–Z</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Christian_Gottlob_Neefe" title="Christian Gottlob Neefe">Christian Gottlob Neefe</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Christoph_Friedrich_Nicolai" title="Christoph Friedrich Nicolai">Christoph Friedrich Nicolai</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Franz_Oberth%C3%BCr" title="Franz Oberthür">Franz Oberthür</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Dietrich_Heinrich_Ludwig_von_Ompteda" title="Dietrich Heinrich Ludwig von Ompteda">Dietrich Heinrich Ludwig von Ompteda</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Christian_Adolph_Overbeck" title="Christian Adolph Overbeck">Christian Adolph Overbeck</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Johann_Heinrich_Pestalozzi" title="Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi">Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Karl_Leonhard_Reinhold" title="Karl Leonhard Reinhold">Karl Leonhard Reinhold</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Franz_Anton_Ries" title="Franz Anton Ries">Franz Anton Ries</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Christian_Gotthilf_Salzmann" title="Christian Gotthilf Salzmann">Christian Gotthilf Salzmann</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Friedrich_Schlichtegroll" title="Friedrich Schlichtegroll">Friedrich Schlichtegroll</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Johann_Georg_Schlosser" title="Johann Georg Schlosser">Johann Georg Schlosser</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Ernst_Friedrich%2C_Baron_von_Schlotheim" title="Ernst Friedrich, Baron von Schlotheim">Ernst Friedrich von Schlotheim</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Nikolaus_Simrock" title="Nikolaus Simrock">Nikolaus Simrock</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Samuel_Thomas_von_S%C3%B6mmerring" title="Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring">Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Joseph_von_Sonnenfels" title="Joseph von Sonnenfels">Joseph von Sonnenfels</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Ludwig_Timotheus_Spittler" title="Ludwig Timotheus Spittler">Ludwig Timotheus Spittler</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Anton_Matthias_Sprickmann" title="Anton Matthias Sprickmann">Anton Matthias Sprickmann</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Johann_Philipp_Stadion%2C_Count_von_Warthausen" title="Johann Philipp Stadion, Count von Warthausen">Johan Philip Stadion von Warthausen</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Maximilian_Stoll" title="Maximilian Stoll">Maximilian Stoll</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Gottfried_van_Swieten" title="Gottfried van Swieten">Gottfried van Swieten</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Johann_Nepomuk_von_Triva" title="Johann Nepomuk von Triva">Johann Nepomuk von Triva</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Fran%C3%A7ois-Charles_de_Velbr%C3%BCck" title="François-Charles de Velbrück">François-Charles de Velbrück</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Franz_Michael_Vierthaler" title="Franz Michael Vierthaler">Franz Michael Vierthaler</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Wilderich_of_Walderdorf" title="Wilderich of Walderdorf">Wilderich of Walderdorf</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Adam_Weishaupt" title="Adam Weishaupt">Adam Weishaupt</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Lorenz_von_Westenrieder" title="Lorenz von Westenrieder">Lorenz von Westenrieder</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Franz_Xaver_von_Zach" title="Franz Xaver von Zach">Franz Xaver von Zach</a></span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:;width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Owl_of_Minerva" class="mw-redirect" title="Owl of Minerva">Owl of Minerva</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Rite_of_Strict_Observance" title="Rite of Strict Observance">Rite of Strict Observance</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Josephinism" title="Josephinism">Josephinism</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">Enlightened absolutism</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Weimar_Classicism" title="Weimar Classicism">Weimar Classicism</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="Sturm_und_Drang" title="Sturm und Drang">Sturm und Drang</a></i></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Anti-Catholicism</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="New_World_Order_(conspiracy_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="New World Order (conspiracy theory)">New World Order (conspiracy theory)</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Augustin_Barruel" title="Augustin Barruel">Augustin Barruel</a>'s <i><a href="Memoirs_Illustrating_the_History_of_Jacobinism" title="Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism">Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism</a></i></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Illuminati_in_popular_culture" title="Illuminati in popular culture">Illuminati in popular culture</a></span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:"><div>

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> <b>Category</b></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><span class="skin-invert-image noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> </span><a href="Portal%3ASociety" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li></ul>

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